Gender differences in health and mortality

The objective of this study is to estimate the healthy life expectancy using different measures of state of health, based on information from the Survey carried out in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. The Sullivan method is currently the one most commonly used for estimating healthy life expectancy by combining information on mortality and morbidity. The Sullivan health expectancy reflects the current health of a real population adjusted for mortality levels and independent of age structure. The results show that the percentage of difference in life expectancy with disability is larger than that of life expectancy free of disability. Women at age 60 had 25 per cent more years of life compared to men. The higher number of healthy years lost if there is a disability that limits daily activities. Women spent their remaining life after age 60 with disability was 151 per cent longer than men, while their gains in years free of disability were only 11 per cent more than men. The proportion of healthy years lost increases significantly with age and that, although females have higher life expectancy than males, they live proportionally less years in good health.

This study aimed to investigate the progress in gender differential in child mortality in
India and factors explaining it. Based on the analyses of three rounds of National Family
Health Survey data the findings suggest that there is a positive change in the scenario of
child mortality from 1992 to 2006 where, though, largely female child is at higher risk but
there is a decline in the risk. The decomposition analyses suggest that demographic
variables such as breastfeeding, birth order, antenatal care and mother’s age emerged as
critical contributors for excess female child mortality compared to socioeconomic
variables. Overall, the results foster that the gender discrimination is mainly operating
through provision of breastfeeding and negligence of higher order female births. The study
also foster that discrimination of higher order female birth mainly operates in terms of
health care provisions and allocation of intra-household resources.

Maternal health in Nigeria is among the poorest in the world. Factors responsible for the poor state of maternal health in the country include low women’s empowerment. Quantitative data was extracted from the 2008 Nigeria Demographic and Health. Qualitative data will be collected to augment the secondary data. The Stata (Version 10.0) computer software was used for statistical analysis. Results of logistic regressions reveal that women’s autonomy (i.e. control over own healthcare) significantly influence place of delivery (OR =1.64, p < 0.01); assistance during delivery (OR = 1.64, p < 0.01); and antenatal care visits (OR = 1.65, p < 0.01). Women who participated in decision making about household large purchases have higher odds for facility delivery (OR = 1.05), and higher antenatal care visits (OR = 1.03). Furthermore, women who accepts male dominance when: wife goes out without permission; argues with male partner; and when wife refuses sex with male partner have less likelihood of facility delivery, skilled assistance during delivery and adequate antenatal visits. The study showed that women empowerment is an important concern that must be addressed to improve maternal health in Nigeria.

The excessive mortality from cardiovascular disease (CVD) among males is an important component of high sex ratio of overall mortality. It has been observed that the sex ratio of CVD mortality in some Western countries increased from the 1950s but that has declined in recent years. However, little research has assessed secular trends in the sex differentials of CVD mortality, particularly by age-period-cohort decomposition, in areas under rapid economic development with swift epidemiologic transition and nutrition transition. We examine the trends in the sex ratio of CVD mortality in East Asia (Japan, Republic of Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) which went through a rapid economic development during the past 5 decades. These trends are compared with those in selected Western populations (Australia, France, England & Wales, and Sweden). Our analyses suggest that the higher sex ratio of CVD mortality occurred among cohorts that had spent a large part of their childhood and early to middle adulthood in a more developed environment. This could be due to the influence of risk factors on males, who appear to be more susceptible to CVD than females. These risk factors are associated with the Nutrition Transition under economic development.

Most of the demographic researches on fertility, reproductive health and contraception focus on females of particular age group especially who are in their reproductive period. Important demographic indicators like fertility, contraception and mortality etc. are estimated on the basis of reporting of the eligible female respondent. But how reliable is the reporting of the wife regarding death of the child? Recently the focus of demographic and health surveys has shifted from being woman centric to couple centric where the couple is taken as a sing unit. The available literature on the subject is also scanty. Hence, this particular study makes an attempt in exploring the matching and mismatch among couples in reporting of the death of the child. The present study analyses the couples information by using a nationally representative sample size of the third round of National Family Health Survey(NFHS-3, 2005-06). Information regarding death is collected both from the husband as well as wife. In India mismatch in reporting of total children died is almost 24 percent of which 14 percent women reported less than their husbands and remaining 10 percent reported higher than their husbands.

Based on 1% National Population Sample Survey in 2005 and the Sixth Census in 2010, using life table technique and Sullivan method, we analyze the changes of life expectancy (LE), disability free life expectancy (DFLE), and their disparity among Chinese male and female elderly. The results show that female elderly have higher LE than their male counterparts, and gender disparity in LE decrease with age; the gender disparity in DFLE decrease with age in lower age, the male elderly have higher DFLE than their counterparts in higher age. The comparison indicates that gender disparity in LE of Chinese elderly is expanding in lower age, and that in DFLE of Chinese elderly is expanding in each age. The proportion of DFLE in LE of male is higher than female, however, unlike the findings from previous research, our research results indicate that the proportion of DFLE in LE is increasing and the increasing speed of DFLE/LE is higher among female elderly than that among male elderly at all age stage between 2005 and 2010.

Context: women’s Autonomy has a significant linkage with utilization of maternal health care in India, but still women’s health especially maternal health is neglected issue. In particular how women’s autonomy within household may affect the receipt health care utilization deserves further exploration.
Method: Data on ever married women aged 15-49 from the National Family Health Survey 2005-06 third round (NFHS-3) is used analysis in this study. Three dimensions of women’s autonomy within household has been explored – decision making within household regarding how to spend money, exposure to newspaper or magazine and freedom for mobility.
Results: less than half of women reported the participation in decision making regarding how to spend money in household not having significant relationship with health care utilization. Exposure to newspapers or magazine linked to an increased likelihood of receiving antenatal and delivery care, freedom for mobility also having positive relationship with health care utilization
Conclusions: less women’s autonomy within household constrains women’s access to antenatal and delivery care The strong association of women’s education with maternal health care utilization highlights the need for took efforts to improve the girl’s education.

The recent evidence shows that strong relationship between formal educations, adult health and disability; higher level of education is associated with lower level of mortality and disability. We used the self rated health indicators to assess the health inequalities at regional level in Pakistan. Little research has been conducted in Pakistan on the health and disability status and virtually absent at sub-national level. This study aims to investigate and compare the determinant of disability for male and female in each province in Pakistan. We developed the hypothesis that higher education is negatively related to adult health and disability. A cross section survey of adults in Pakistan was carried out in 2002 by World health survey. Women were more likely than men to describe their health as poor. Determinants of disability differed between men and women, possibly highlighting underlying cultural norms and gender roles in the society. Understanding the regional context of disability and its determinants within the prevailing culture will be important to tailor intervention programs aimed at improving health of the Pakistan societies.

It is presumed that higher rate of morbidity would cause greater chances of mortality. However, the paradox is that females in India recently started experiencing lower rate of mortality with higher rate of morbidity as compared to males. This present paper suggests that gender differential in diseases pattern, severity in illness and greater risk behaviour among males play an important role in explaining the observed paradox. Indian females experience higher level of morbidity with regard to more acute or less life threatening diseases. On the other hand, males experience lower disease burden with regard to more life threatening diseases. The experiencing of more life threatening diseases or higher mortality rate among males across adult age groups is probably the result of males’ greater risk behaviour in terms of smoking, chewing pan masala and drinking alcohol. Therefore, this study expects that policy makers pay serious attention towards males’ health, particularly for the latter age groups. Although, females continue to be are still discriminated against, particularly in the early age groups, males deserve some attention because of their greater risk behaviour besides their facing life threatening diseases.

With the acceleration of population ageing in China, a large elderly widowed group is emerging. This article analyses the proportion of elderly widowhood amongst the Chinese elderly population by using the census data for 1990 and 2000 and measures the widowhood index amongst the elderly population on the basis of China’s life tables. The study has found that the probability of elderly male widowhood is 0.35, and the figure for elderly female widowhood is 0.65. An average marriage lasts 43.45 years. After being widowed, men live for another 11.60 more years, whilst women another 15.57 years. The age difference between husband and wife has a relatively big impact on the widowhood index. The index is also markedly different between cities and rural areas. Although the life expectancy amongst the rural population is relatively low, they also have the shortest married life and the youngest widowhood age. However, they tend to live more years after they are widowed. The findings in this article can provide references for policy making for the elderly.