Inequalities in education

Access to education is a fundamental right to attain social change towards equitable development and respects of cultural diversity. In the last three decades, Latin America has made great efforts to achieve the educational goals subscribed. However indigenous peoples present an unfavorable situation in education with great inequalities. The question of indigenous language emerges as one of the main demands of these peoples. It’s urgent to have updated information on these issues, as a key for human rights promotion. Most countries in the region have included questions of self-identification in their censuses. In the 2010 census also included questions on indigenous language. We analyze in the last decade changes of accessibility and permanence of young indigenous people in the educational system and the liveliness or loss of the indigenous language. We include a reference to the ducation right minimum standards, including national legislative developments in: Costa Rica, Ecuador and Venezuela. Aftwerards, educational and language indicators are calculated. The analysis considers territorial, ethnic, gender and generational inequalities and the geographical distribution of formal education/ language maintenance relationship. The study presents relevant and unpublished information. It ends with a discussion and policy proposals.

According to the development of higher education in China, this paper emphatically explores the relationship evolution of higher education population and economic growth from scale and geographical distribution, and the development of higher education in different areas is evaluated objectively from carrying capacity of population. For this study, the correlated data comes from China statistical yearbook and education statistical yearbook and population and employment yearbook in China, and the sixth national census major data. Through population gravity model and the comprehensive carrying capacity model of higher education population calculation, the empirical study proves that the higher education population scale can make corresponding adjustments to keep pace with economic growth, which has more and more high sensitivity. Higher education population gravity and economic gravity run mostly in the same direction in geographical spatial distribution, and they all have southward trend. Besides, based on the population carrying capacity evaluation results and function types, China (except for Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan) is divided into 4 higher education population function regions by discriminate analysis: optimizing area, key area, driving area and area reliant on support.

The study aims to explore educational performances of children in the primary grades in Andhra Pradesh, India. For this, the study uses data from the Young Lives research. The study used bi-variate analysis to examine the status of educational performances of children; and logistic regression analysis to find out factors responsible for school performances. Educational performances have been examined using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test results separately for reading, writing and mathematical abilities. The preliminary analysis shows that large percentage of boys and girls are not able to read and write in the primary grades. But, their mathematical abilities are relatively better than reading and writing. The logistic regression analysis results show that along with other variables boys with reference to girls; standard BMI of children with reference to low BMI; children getting mid-day meal in schools with reference to not getting; economic activities of children with reference to not working children ; and children in grade 2 and 3 with reference to grade1 are statistically significant predictors for better reading, writing and mathematical abilities. Mother’s education, middle and rich class are also important determinants of reading and writing.

Age and education are two most basic and important information collected in almost all demographic and health surveys. Most of the demographic researches on fertility, reproductive health and contraception focus on females of particular age group especially who are in their reproductive period. Important demographic indicators like fertility, contraception and mortality are estimated on the basis of reporting of the eligible female respondent. The available literature on the concordance and discordance of the reporting of age and education between husband and wife is scanty. Hence, this particular study makes an attempt in exploring the degree of matching and mismatching in reporting of the education of the husbands by the wives in India. The present study analyses the concordance and discordance of the reporting of the husband's education by the wife and by the husband himself separately by using a nationally representative sample size of 42185 couples. It is found that in India among 23 percent of the couples, there is mismatch in reporting of husband's age as reported by the wife and the husband himself.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, EDUCATION INFRASTRUCTURE AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
Neelu Rathour*
*Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Education is important not only for the full development of one's personality, but also for the sustained growth of the nation. The condition of education is very poor at the time of independence though the country tried hard to improve it still the standard is very low. The quality of elementary education in India has also been a major area of concern for the government. In fact, making elementary education in India accessible, universal and relevant has been a goal since the eighth five-year plan. The main objective of the paper is to examine the education indicators and their development in India and its impact on quality of education. The district information system for education. Simple methodology like percentages has been calculated and for showing state wise variation GIS technique has been used for making maps. Human development index is also been correlated with different education parameters and situation has been accesses on basis of them. The findings are very interesting as the socio-economic variation plays an important role in India.

This paper is an effort to identify the difference between government and private primary schools in terms of physical infrastructure, schooling costs and student’s performance. It also assessed the role of physical infrastructure and schooling costs on the performance of students. The results present a distinct picture of government and private primary school education in India in terms of physical infrastructure standards, schooling cost and performance of students. In all the three selected indicators, private primary schools remained a forerunner or outperform the government primary schools in India. Beside this, the physical infrastructure and schooling cost found to have effect on performance of students both in private and public schools. Since, government primary schools hold more than seventy percent of total students, there is an urgent need to improve the standards of primary education in these schools. Further, efforts are needed to reduce the gaps between private and public schools in terms of its basic physical facilities and performance of students in the country.

This study examines the influence of possible individual and household characteristics as well as the state level factors on the chances of completion of primary level education within 10-15 years of age (i.e. effective completion) in India with temporal perspective. The study is based on the information collected by the National Sample Survey (NSS) in its three rounds of survey canvassed during 1986-87, 1995-96, and 2007- 2008 in India. Adjusting for potential factors, the study found no significant change in the probability of effective completion of primary level education in India over more than two decades. A host of individual/household factors was examined having strong influence compared to state level educational, institutional and developmental factors.

Background: This paper examines the inequality of opportunity among Indian children in attending appropriate class as per their age up to elementary level (Std. I-VIII) of education during 1986–2008. The socioeconomic, regional and temporal perspective in underscoring the inequality of opportunity in time-bound completion of elementary education would be imperative to achieve universalization of elementary education in effective manner.
Data & Methods: Data from the three rounds of the National Sample Survey on ‘Participation in Education’ conducted during 1986-87, 1995-96 and 2007-08 were analyzed. In order to assess inequality of opportunity in attending appropriate class at appropriate age among children across selected circumstance groups, the study used the Human Opportunity Index (HOI). The HOI synthesizes measurements of both the absolute level of opportunities in a society and how equitably those opportunities are distributed into a single indicator.
Results: Adjusting potential socio-demographic and economic characteristics, the opportunity among Indian children in attending appropriate class as per their age up to elementary level has shown an increase of 20 percentage point during 1986-2008. The opportunity gap in gender and social group is catching up gradually due to increasing coverage rate in disadvantaged

Much of the recent research has focused on the quality of labour force but the prospective labour force also needs attention so that they become educated and more productive. This paper examines the level of school participation of children considering that educational attainment and quality of labour force are not mutually exclusive. We also examined age appropriate enrollment, rural urban differential in school continuation, and relative influence of socio-economic, contextual and area specific variables on out of school children. The reasons of never enrolled and school dropout are also analysed. The results indicate that a significant proportion of population in 10-19 years age group are still out of school with urban poor having the highest risk for never enrolled and dropout. Further it has been observe that presence of adult literate female in a household increases the likelihood of school enrollment for a child. The findings also suggest that a significant proportion of children are not in appropriate grade for their age which increases the incidence of school dropout. To conclude we may say that a significant proportion of the prospective labour force is never enrolled, some are not enrolled in the appropriate grade and some are school dropouts.

Even though fertility during adolescence can be considered to favor dropping out, recent research suggests that maternity might constitute a life plan for those young women who live in contexts in which education is limited and rejected, or who lack (other) choices for the future. Considering this dilemma, we try to identify the prevailing order of the events, maternity and dropping out, in Southern Cone countries (Argentina and Uruguay). These countries do not have data collection instruments which allow for revealing the chronological order of the events. Nonetheless, it is possible to carry out an approximation exercise with census and household surveys data from the information about the educational situation, the number of school years completed, the young woman's age, her current fertility (children born during the last year) and retrospective fertility (total number of children). We use data of the Argentinean census (2001) and Household Survey of Uruguay (2006). At the same time, we are interested in finding out if becoming a mother has a different impact on the education of teenagers (and vice versa) according to their socioeconomic level, and the cultural and geographical sector they belong to.