Gender, work and family (1)

Using data from eight European countries, we investigate expected consequences of union formation among non-partnered individuals aged 22-35 (N = 8,443). Data come from the Gender and Generations Surveys. For Sweden we use data from the Young Adult Panel Study. Overall, respondents expected only minor economic and non-economic consequences of moving in with a partner within the next three years. Swedes held the strongest expectations of an improved financial situation, whereas respondents from Belgium, France, Hungary and Russia had strongest expectations of improved career opportunities. Further, Romanians and Swedes anticipated decreasing personal freedom, whereas Hungarians expected increased life satisfaction. Women expected greater improvements in their financial situation and career opportunities than men. Men, on the other hand, to a greater extent than women expected reduced personal freedom when moving in with a partner. The more optimistic view of women on their financial situation after union formation was weaker in all countries relative to Sweden. Further, women expected better career opportunities than men in Austria, Belgium, Hungary and Romania compared with Sweden. Men’s stronger expectation of decreasing personal freedom by forming a union was significantly weaker in Austria, France and Hungary than in Sweden

This paper analizes the labor participation of women age 60 and over, residing in urban areas in Argentina, departing from special processings of the Permanent Survey of Households for the third quarter of 2011. Whith this aim, this paper analyzes some concepts about labor participation of elder adults and offers a summary of the social security coverage in Argentina at the end of the first decade of the XXI century. Also it targets at characterizing the labor participation of elder women in urban areas of Argentina. It also aims at analyzing the factors associated to labour participation of Argentine urban aged women from a quantitative perspective.
Finally, through in depth interviews to a sub-group of women over 59 years old and with an occupation, it tackles the advantages and disadvantages of keeping a job, in connection with income, social life, health, family and marital relationships. It also aims at assessing projected age to abandon paid activities as well as projects, fears, and expectations related to this event. In addition, it aims to capture their opinions about the factors that facilitate and hinder labour insertion of people of their age and educational level, about prejudice and labour discrimination.

This paper extends the study of changes in time and inequalities by gender and socioeconomic level at the moment when three cohorts of Mexican men and women got their first stable job. A statistical analysis that allows specifying the relationship of these three axes: cohorts, gender and socioeconomically status with the transition to the first job had not been done until this paper. Moreover, this text analyses the socio demographic factors associated to this transition. We use life course theory and the concept of transitions to study this topic. Also life tables and two logistic models were elaborated.
The present research indicates that over the other axes, gender had a fundamental position in this transition because men and women continued making this transition following the traditional division of labor. It can be observed not only in the median ages when they got a job, that are different for each sexes, but also in their respective proportion of laboral participation and in the kind of job that they got for their first time.
Although differences between men and women by socioeconomic level were not statistically significant, this paper shows that gender inequalities conjugated with socioeconomic differences were disadvantages for certain groups.

In this article we explore men´s and women´s occupational outcomes after internal migration using panel data from Britain. Our theoretical framework combines traditional individual and household migration decision models with an innovative structural approach. This highlights the role within migration processes of the systematic separation of men and women across occupations with diverging characteristics and career prospects. We add to existing literature by focusing explicitly on individuals' post-migration occupational characteristics and sex-composition, and thus depart from the traditional (restrictive) focus on wages and employment status. Two types of migration-related occupational outcomes are of particular interest: (i) between-individual differences on post-migration occupational characteristics, and (ii) within-individual differences in pre- and post-migration occupational characteristics. Sex differences on the processes that lead to migration related occupational outcomes are explored as well as those which arise from migration roles in family moves, a pervasive structural factor on gendered migration outcomes. The empirical analysis consists of panel regression models estimated using individual-level data from the British Household Panel Survey combined with occupational-level data from the UK Labour Force Survey.

Pakistan is among the countries that are facing a stiff lack of highly-qualified labour force which is impeding its economic development. Since the country has a large number of highly qualified females with excellent academic records in different fields, the importance of labour force participation hence cannot be denied. Despite of the reality that girls and young women’s performance in schools, colleges and universities are undoubtedly admirable and outstanding (for example 70% of the students in medicine and 40% of those in economics are females) and girls and young women enrollment rate in primary schools, colleges and universities are also increasing day by day, labour female market participation continues to be very low. The reasons behind this reality are indecent job conditions, long distance travelling, irregular working hours, family reputation and social disapproval (cultural norms). Home responsibilities after marriage, pregnancy and child care prevent females to join labour market. Parent’s motivations to invest money in the education of their young girls are largely focused on their awareness and a marriage with educated and wealthy male. Under theses conditions the task of the government is to provide proper work environments and create awareness among people about the importance of female professional work.

Delayed marriage of women during two decades has been considered in some researches, only as a result of marriage squeeze which still opens to discuss. However, all studies indicated that postponed marriage among women is greater than men. Given the age structure and sex composition of Iran's population and in light of the current research on delayed male marriage in Iran, the paper attempts to address the question that to what extent delayed male marriage affects the tempo of marriage among women. Using the data from censuses 1966 to 2006 and a national sample survey in 2001, the age pattern of marriage by sex and the relationship between age at male and female marriage is investigated. The paper concludes that male tendency to marry with younger women can delay marriage among women, when they postpone their marriage-- even in the absent of marriage squeeze. By comparing age pattern of male and female marriage and using life table method, nuptiality table, it is argued that the extent of delaying marriage among women is affected by delayed marriage among men. In addition, because of the foregoing tendency among those men who delayed their marriage to 30 years old and over, marriage chance among the women, who postponed their marriage to age 30, declines to less than 10 percent (of the total population never married at the age

The objective of this paper is to examine the role female and male children play in the Iranian informal social support networks for elderly parents using Task-Specific (or Litwak's) theory. The data of the study has been obtained from two surveys including a sample of 527 people in 2006 and a sample of 400 people in 2011. In both sample, the people ages 60 or more. The analysis of binary logistic regression revealed that elderly parents expect highly from sons to help them when they confront with financial difficulties and further from daughters when they are illness. The examination of the effect of children birth order showed that elder sons have more significant role than younger brothers in supporting financially their parent, and, similarly, that elder daughters have more important role than younger sisters in nursing their parents. Also, the parents expect from the highly and academically educated children to help them financially and emotionally and from the low educated children to provide them instrumental supports such as transportation and nursing. In addition, the further analysis based on the data of survey in 2011 clarified that when a parent has no daughter, his/her son takes the responsibilities of all tasks, especially nursing, and that when he/she has no son , his/her spouse or siblings support him/her.

This paper maps spatial and demographic variation in reports of intimate partner violence (IPV) in Bangladesh. Data from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) conducted in 2007 are used in this analysis. In addition to the usual demographic and health questions, the survey administered a special module on violence which included questions on women’s experience of physical and sexual violence, attitudes of acceptance of violence towards women and family history of violence. While overall reports of physical and sexual violence among women are high, our analysis is able to capture some telling patterns of demographic and spatial variation using multi-level modeling techniques. Exploring the influences of individual, spousal and community characteristics (normative attitudes, poverty and educational level) we confirm several strong patterns: reports of IPV in the past year is highest among the youngest women and declines with woman’s own age. While early marriage is not itself associated with IPV reports, large age differences between spouses is predictive of violent relationships. Women’s own education and having more education than husbands is strongly protective while poverty and women’s work is associated with reports of higher violence. Women who work and are active in non-family institutions report higher violence.

This article assesses the micro and macro social factors that explain changes in the transition to the first birth and the entry into labour market in a Latin-American country with a peculiar demographic evolution: Uruguay. First, we examine the timing of the first birth and the timing of entry into the first full-time job of several female cohorts. We take into account the endogeneity of the decision-making process in the reproductive and productive spheres by estimating the mutual effects of reproductive and labour-market transitions on one another. Secondly, we study the interactions between the socio-economic context and the individual biographical characteristics, in a context of increasing female activity rates and higher levels of societal risks in the region. We evaluate the responses in the productive and reproductive behaviour to the changes in market and economic conditions. We focus on the characteristics that are more critical in determining the levels of social risk, most importantly unemployment rates and economic growth, seeking to establish the presence of pro-cyclical or anti-cyclical effects in individual reproductive trajectories—mediated by the labour market trajectories as well as the cohort, social origins and educational attainment levels. We use longitudinal survey data (2001 and 2008).

Female householder is appeared in rural areas resulted in their poor status and live mostly in the agricultural sector as family laborer.
This study aims to describe in detail the figure of peasant female-headed households. The design of this study is a qualitative research with case study technique. The location was determined intentionally considering that Kampung Babakan Salam in Desa Pangalengan. The informants are 12 people and being researched with census method. The data collection technique is triangulation.
The result of the study shows that the informants’ background of becoming female householders is being left by the death of their husband (58.33%). The selection of the job as farm laborers was picked because of the lack of knowledge and sufficient capital (58.33%) and by perforce (41.67%). In terms of demographics, the age of the informants ranged from 40-77 years with a relatively low level of education, which is only reached elementary school level (83.33%). The welfare condition of informants is belong to the very poor family/pra-sejahtera (83.33%), poor/ KS-I (8.33%), and fair prosperous/KS-II (8.33%). Almost all informants have dual role, either doing domestic or public
Keywords: Figure, female-headed households, farming laborer, family