Population and poverty

This paper evaluates the health card subsidy, issued by Indonesian government after the financial crisis in 1997, benefits the elderly health care demand. The health card subsidy provided free access to health services; and was accepted at all health center or ‘puskesmas’. Using the Indonesia Socio-economic survey data (Susenas) for 2003, our results show health cards issued to the poor consistently caused increase the demand on health care facilities among the 55 year old population. Unfortunately, it is also found that the health card benefited wealthier individuals in their access of health centers or ‘puskesmas’.

This study examines whether the vicious circle theory applies in the case of Tanzania which is characterized by high population growth. According to the vicious circle theory, natural resource scarcity coupled with poverty leads to population growth via positive effects on fertility particularly in rural areas of developing countries. Population growth then leads to a further increase in natural resource scarcity, creating a “feedback loop.” This study uses micro-level data to test and control for endogeneity using a two-stage Probit model (IVPROBIT). The existing literature has largely failed to address endogeneity in the relationship between natural resource scarcity and population growth. This study is conducted using the latest cross-sectional data collected by Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) in Tanzania. This study compares the results of single equation models (traditional approach) and IVPROBIT models. The study assumes that IVPROBIT method consistently outperforms the traditional approach. The expectation is that the results will provide support for the vicious circle argument by showing that natural resource scarcity and poverty lead to increases in fertility.

The relationships between poverty, female autonomy and fertility are spelled out in everyday life although scientific causalities are complex to disentangle. This paper is based on two rounds of qualitative studies in rural Kenya. The two areas, in Western and Coast Provinces are characterized by high levels of poverty combined with variations in fertility development. After 1989 Kenya experienced fertility decline, which came to a halt from the end of the 1990s. Western Province follows this development, while in Coast only modest fertility changes have taken place. Given widespread poverty in both areas, this paper asks if women possess different spaces of autonomy, and if so, what implications can be traced for family planning and fertility. The first round of case studies was carried out in Bungoma, Western Province in 1988 (Jensen and Juma, 1989) and Kwale, Coast Province in 1991 (Jensen and Khasakhala, 1993). The second round was a follow-up of the previous studies, carried out in 2011. The case studies have been carried out just before the general fertility decline and at the end – at a time when the question is whether a new decline may be in motion.

In recent years, many global initiatives have emphasized the importance of women’s autonomy in reducing childhood morbidity and mortality rates. In Sub-Saharan Africa, health organizations and initiatives have implemented immunization coverage as an effective means of reducing morbidity and mortality. Less than ¼ of Ethiopian children were fully immunized in 2011. In addition, low levels of autonomy among women due to early marriages and lack of education limit women’s abilities to improve their children’s health. This study analyzed how dimensions of women’s autonomy, decision making abilities and attitudes on wife beating, improves the immunization status of children 12-30 months using the 2011 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Surveys. After controlling for all covariates, women who were able to make decisions concerning their mobility and finances were 2 times more likely to have fully immunized children, compared to women who did not have these decision making abilities, net of socioeconomic measures. In addition, women who did not find wife beating acceptable were more likely to fully immunized children compared to women who found wife beating acceptable. Future policy implications for child health in Ethiopia must focus on increasing the specific means through which women can have greater control of their lives.

Poverty trap persists in many resource-poor regions due to various specific causes. A unique poverty trap occurs in the so-called ‘Beggars’ Village’ in Sumenep Regency, Indonesia. Unlike beggars Pragaan Daya village. The main occupation of the villagers is begging. In the view of most cultures in Indonesia, begging is bad and unrespectful, but the community in Pragaan Daya village was the exception. Begging had been their intergenerational profession. This research aimed to determine root causes of the begging culture in Pragaan Daya Village. This paper was based on qualitative research using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach to reveal these socio-economic problems. The research found that internal variables which affected cultural poverty trap in the village were: daily income obtained from begging; existance of village market; land topography; awareness in education; teaching and learning environment; fertility of farmland;water resources and; irrigation system, while the external variables were:government’s attention; farmland extensivication and education cost. Based on the finding we reccommended that local development must be equitable which means economic development that respond social development and vise versa.
Key Words: cultural poverty trap, PRA approach, beggar, local development.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between international migration and access to social programs in the context of poor households in Mexico. Are there any differences in the access to social programs between households with migrants and households without migrants? This is a relevant question in lieu of a changing pattern in international migration in Mexico, where the bibliography has shown that poor households have started to have members that migrate to the US. We use a cross-section household survey of the most impoverished municipalities in Mexico (2011) to characterize households with international migration experiences and their differences in access to conditional transfer programs: Oportunidades, Setenta y más, and Seguro Popular. With this survey, it will be possible to estimate the wellbeing of households, their access to the most important social programs in Mexico, and socio-demographic of households that will be validated with census information. Impact evaluation of these social programs have presented mixed results in finding an increasing probability of migration due to access to social programs. Thus, the main contribution of work will be to provide evidence about the processes with which the links between poverty, migration, and access to social programs occur.

Migration is an important livelihood strategy for households with limited sources of income. It helps in the upward mobility of migrants and their families. Using a nationally representative cross-section data for India, we compare consumption expenditure and intake of calories and proteins of households which migrated with those which did not migrate. We also compare outcomes across households with and without a short-term migrant. Since the decision to migrate is itself affected by other factors, we use certain regional and demographic indicators as instruments. Valid instruments include location quotient (i.e. agglomeration of economic activities), estimates of population living in urban and peripheral urban areas and migrant flows into the district. Two-stage instrumental variable technique is used for analysis purposes. Our main finding is that migrant households and households without a short-term migrant have higher consumption expenditure, calorie and protein intake than their respective counterparts. Also migrant households in urban areas are found to be better off in terms of consumption and nutrient intake than those in rural areas.

About 50% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa are children and adolescents. This study uses the age-structure-economic framework to analyse census data for three countries in the region to examine whether the large proportion of children and adolescents are economic dividend or burden. Census data for Kenya, Senegal and South Africa were purposively selected for analysis. Descriptive analytical strategies were used to examine the age structure, educational attainment and employment status. The series of census data analysed show vividly that large proportion of young people in the selected countries is mainly dependants. Thus, the youthful population structure is critical to the prevailing high dependency ratio in the countries. Consistent with age-structure-economic framework adopted for the study, the present proportion of children and adolescents are more of economic burden to individual families and governments. Nevertheless, if sustainable fertility decline is pursued through reductionate population policies, the current large proportion of children and adolescents would graduate into the working age population in about a decade or so and dependency ratio would begin to fall. If appropriate economic, social and legal frameworks are put in place, this situation is most likely to propel rapid economic growth.

The share of private sector of total health expenditure in India is maximum with 78.05%, public sector at 19.67% and the external flows contribute 2.28%. In the contribution of private sector, households contribute a significant portion at 95%. This out-of-pocket (OOP) health spending is found to have increased further after 1990s. And this increase has negative consequences through increasing catastrophic health spending and impoverishment.

This paper focuses on the magnitude and changes of OOP expenditure and its impact on poverty by using two rounds of NSS data on health survey-NSS 52nd and 60th round. It is found that the OOP spending has increased and with greater magnitude among rural and relatively poor people in the post reform period, i.e. after 1990s. Similarly, the impact of increased OOP spending over poverty has been greater among rural and relatively poor people. This paper concludes with the fact that while new policies adopted in the health sector reform have significant impact on the increased health care cost and impoverishment, demographic transition also has had a significant impact. A substantial portion of change in OOP spending and impoverishment is found to be the result of age structure change over the two survey periods.

In the four past decades, demographic researchers noticed the emergence of a type of cities defined as medium-sized cities, playing an important role in the regional imbalance in the Brazilian urban universe. Using the data taken from IBGE (2010), this study finds that the country counts 245 medium-sized cities with populations ranking from 100.000 to 500.000 inhabitants, which are experiencing a remarkable demographic performance by showing larger population growth rates than the country as a whole. In fact, this kind of demographic size entitles such cities to fill up the position of regional poles, functioning as a leading base for balanced economic growth and territorial organization of activities, providing good accessibility to services of general economic interest, as an integrated system connected to stronger metropolitan areas. This paper aims at a twofold objective. First, it analyses the demographic growth and social dynamics in medium-sized cities, presenting a brief review on the literature which explores the features of the urban poverty in the Brazilian context. Second, it approaches the subject of inequalities and spatial poverty distribution, using a demographic methodology and data from the National Population Census of 2010, in an attempt to better understanding both processes.